Bottle Blast-Off!

Building a Rocket Launcher

You can build a rocket launcher from an old plastic soda bottle.

What do i need ?
2-liter plastic bottle (only one is required for each launcher, but we strongly recommend that you make two launchers and have a couple of extra soda bottles on hand in case one fails)

1 meter (about 3 feet) of clear flexible vinyl tubing with 1/2 inch inner diameter and 5/8 inch outer diameter (the type of tubing doesn’t matter, as long as you can tape one end to the neck of the soda bottle and the other end to the PVC pipe)

Duct tape

60 cm (about 2 feet) of PVC pipe with 1/2 inch inner diameter

What do i do ?

step 1
Remove cap from bottle.

step 2

Insert about an inch of flexible tubing into the bottle opening. Tape it in place with duct tape. Try to make the connection between the tubing and the bottle airtight.

step 3

Push the PVC pipe against the other end of the flexible tubing. (Don’t try to insert the tubing into the PVC pipe.) Tape the tubing and the PVC pipe together. Again, try to make the connection airtight.

Chemical Formula

Definitions

A chemical formula expresses the exact composition of a molecule or substance using the chemical abbreviations of the chemical elements.
A chemical element is a substance that can not be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. There are approximately 114 known chemical elements, 83 of which are naturally-occurring. Common examples include carbon, hydrogen, sodium and iron.
The smallest basic unit of a chemical element that can enter into chemical reactions is called an atom

Additional Info

There are several different ways of expressing chemical formulas:
Molecular formulas use the exact number of atoms of each element present in the smallest unit of the substance. For example, benzene is a molecule composed of six carbon and six hydrogen atoms and has a formula C6H6.
Note: two different materials may share the same molecular formula. For example, both acetone (also called 2-propanone) and propionaldehyde (also called propanal) share the same molecular formula of C3H6O, but have different arrangements of atoms in the molecules. These are called structural isomers. Structural isomers usually have different chemical and physical properties:

Empirical formulas use the simplest (lowest) whole-number ratio of the elements that are present. For example, the molecular formula of benzene is C6H6, but the empirical formula is simply CH.
Note: An even larger number of compounds can share the same empirical formula. For example, acetylene (a gas) has the molecular formula C2H2, but has the same empirical formula as benzene (a liquid), CH.
Structural formulas are a version of a molecular formulas in which the connectivity of the atoms is implied. For example, acetone, which has a molecular formula of C3H6O, can also be expressed as (CH3)CO(CH3) or (CH3)2CO. For convenience, chemists often sketch these. Those shown

Finally, while you probably won't see these on MSDS's, chemists sometimes use structural models to represent the arrangement of atoms in a molecule (the molecular stucture). Again, these are all equivalent ways of drawing the structure of acetone:

MSDS Relevance

Recognize that a molecular formula is not necessarily a unique identifier for a chemical substance. Do not rely on molecular formulas alone to label or identify a substance. For example, the molecular formulas of glucose (a form of sugar) and 1,3-dihydroxy-2-propanone dimer (an eye and skin irritant) are identical, C6H12O6.
Chemical names are not always reliable because a common chemical may be known by several different names. For example, methylene chloride, dichloromethane and methylenebichloride are common names for the same substance, CH2Cl2. If you need a unique identifier, use the CAS Registry Number as well as molecular formula and name.

Industrial Chemicals Logistics

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US Hand Grenades

For an interesting account of the 'ole Mark Deuce' pineapple
-->US forces in Korea used five basic types of hand grenades, many of which can easily be converted to rifle grenades.1. Offensive grenades (pic, upper left). Contain an explosive charge filler of flaked TNT in a body with sheet metal ends and pressed fiber sides. Designed for demolition effect and to stun the enemy in enclosed places.An older model Mark I is shown above, but went to the Mark IIIA-1, about 14 ounces, for Korea. The earlier dangerous impact type fuse was replaced with a time fuse as with the fragmentation grenade. By 1953, our concussion grenades were simple half-pound blocks of C-3, an explosive resembling opaque yellow plastic, packed in cardboard, and into which was screwed the standard fragmentation timed fuze. The fragmentation grenade was much more widely used in defensive situations. The Chinese and North Koreans frequently used concussion grenades as their primary grenades for assaults, as they pose less danger to attacking troops. However our soldiers would sometimes be stunned but still recover in time to continue fighting effectively.2. Fragmentation grenades (pic, upper middle). Contain an explosive charge in a metal body, designed to break into fragments upon the charge exploding. They have a killing radius of 5 to 10 yards, and fragments are dangerous up to 50 yards. Normally thrown less than 35 yards, that means 'duck' until they explode, and the time delay after pulling the safety pin was from 4.0 - 4.8 seconds. The MarkIIA1, fitted with the M10A3 fuse, was most commonly used. Weighing about 21 ounces, constructed of cast iron with serrations, this grenade produced about 1000 potentially lethal fragments.3. Chemical grenades (pic, bottom row and middle right). Designed to produce a toxic or irritating effect, a casualty effect, a screening or signal smoke, an incendiary action, or some combination. Some of these grenades, as with the TH M14 thermite (bottom center, and enlarged bottom left without fuze), come with metal straps which prevent rolling, and an M200A1 igniting fuse with only about 2 seconds of delay after safety lever release. Baseball-type tear gas grenades (bottom right) are special issue for riot control, using a CN filler.The most common chemical grenade was the M15 White Phosphorous. Weighing about 31 ounces, using the M6A3 fuse with a 4.0 - 4.8 second time delay, the M15 had a burst radius of about 25 yards and burned for 50 to 60 seconds. Officially intended as screening, casualty and harassment, the WP could illum a suspect area for the gunners while still giving any enemy in the area other things to worry about. The Mk1 (middle right) was an Illuminating grenade.4. Practice grenades. Contain a reduced charge for safe use in training.5. Training grenades (upper right). Containing no explosive charge or chemical, these are for grenade throwing practice.6. Bangalore Torpedo. As did Communist forces, we sometimes also used the bangalore torpedo. This is just a 3 foot or so length of pipe, filled with flaked TNT or plastic like C-3, and capped at both ends. The fuze is screwed into one end of the pipe. It is primarily intended to blow paths through obstacles like barbed wire, and so is normally inserted under them, with the blast effect blowing the obstacle material up and to the sides.

Grenades come in different sizes and shapes, for different purposes, but all have two things in common. First, they are hollow so they can be filled with the explosive or chemical filler. Second, they contain a threaded hole into which a fuze can be screwed or inserted.A grenade is essentially a small bomb, but works very much like a simple firecracker. A firecracker is made up of a paper body filled with gunpowder and has a small fuze. When you light the fuse, it burns down to the powder and blows the paper body apart. A grenade works exactly the same way, the main essential difference being that the grenade's fuze is lighted by a mechanical device rather than a match.The below image shows a cross-section of the grenade and fuze parts for a fragmentation grenade. The basic action is as follows:

1. Holding the grenade in the throwing hand, thumb over the safety lever, pull the safety pin (pull force of 10-35 pounds).2. When the grenade is thrown (safety lever released), a spring throws off the safety lever and rotates the striker into the primer.3. The primer contains material like the head of a match. When struck by the striker, it ignites and sets fire to the fuze, or powder train. The fuze burns at a controlled rate, providing a time delay (usu 4-5 seconds). When the flame of the fuze reaches the detonator or igniter, it causes action on the filler.4. A detonator is similar to a small blasting cap. Very sensitive to heat, when the fuze burns into it, it causes the grenade to explode.5. An igniter is a cap that burns rapidly. It basically sets fire to the filler causing a rapidly expanding gas which bursts the container.6. The MarkII fragmentation grenade shown uses a detonator.



Note by Arthur Snell, dsnell@mpx.com.au Australian veteran of later Maylasian campaign:'We (Aussies & Brits) were still using the WW1 designed Grenade No 36M or Mills Bomb. It weighed about 1lb 11ozs or 2lb. Used a 4 or 7 second fuse. The 7 second fuse was normally used when the Mills Bomb was fired out of the rifle mounted grenade cup launcher. It was a defensive pattern grenade and shrapnel could kill up to 80 yards. Therefore it was thrown from behind cover or thrower immediately laid down after throwing. In bunker or strong point clearing it was definitely overkill, but still the best I have ever used. The outercasing was cast iron and in pattern to assist fragmentation. It worked on split pin and curved lever similar to your Mk IIA1. '

Military Gears Up for Bomb-Bot 2.0

Bomb disposal robots have saved thousands of lives in Iraq and Afghanistan. But the machines are still pretty crude -- with limited vision, and tiny brains. That could start to change soon, however. The U.S. armed forces are getting ready to launch the next generation of bomb-bots.
According to a Navy presentation obtained by Danger Room, the military is planning two models for its Advanced Explosive Ordnance Disposal Robot System (AEODRS). One machine would be a little smaller and a little longer-lasting than iRobot's Packbot 510 explosives-handler. The other would be a little heavier than Qinetiq's Talon bomb-bot, but a human-like hand would cope with the weapons, in addition to the Talon's claw.
The really substantial changes would be inside the machines: beefed-up sensors, for "self-awareness and environmental awareness," as well as "improved perception and intelligence ... for increased autonomous navigation." The tech would free up military robot-handlers who now have to guide the machine's every move -- and make decisions based on the bot's often fuzzy video feeds.
The AEODRS program is also designed to give the maintenance guys a break. In the current setup, they can only use Packbot sensors on Packbot machines, and Talon devices on Talon robots. The military wants to replace that with an architecture that allows "Sensor A from Robot B [to] be seamlessly swapped and used on Robot C for Sensor D." A controller from one company should be able to guide the other firm's robots, too.
After some initial consultations with robot manufacturers in 2007, the military says it's ready to start the project this fall. Production could begin on the newest bomb-bots by 2013.

Bomb Threat

Bombing, and the threat of being bombed are harsh realities in today's world. The public is becoming more aware of those incidents of violence that are perpetrated by vicious, nefarious segments of our society through the illegal use of explosives. The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center Police Department is charged with providing protection for life and property, but they alone cannot be held responsible. Everyone on the Health Sciences Center Campus must do his or her part to ensure a safe environment.
Bombs can be constructed to look like almost anything, and can be placed, or delivered in any number of ways. The probability of finding a bomb that looks like the stereotypical bomb is almost nonexistent. The only common denominator that exists among bombs is that they are designed, or intended, to explode.
Most bombs are homemade, and are limited in their design only by the imagination of, and resources available to, the bomber. Remember, when searching for a bomb, suspect anything that looks unusual - let the trained bomb technician determine what is, or is not, a bomb.
Bomb threats are delivered in a variety of ways. The majority of threats are called in to the target. Occasionally these calls are through a third party. Sometimes, a threat is communicated in writing, or by a recording.

There are two logical explanations for calling, or making, a bomb threat:

1. The caller has definite knowledge, or believes, that an explosive, or incendiary bomb, has been, or will be placed. He, or she, wants to minimize personal injury, or property damage. The caller may be the person who placed the device, or someone who has become aware of such information.
2. The caller wants to create an atmosphere of anxiety and panic which will, in turn, result in a disruption of the normal activities at the location where the device is purportedly placed.If a bomb threat is received over the telephone, take the following actions:
1. Stay Calm
2. Attempt to get the following information from the caller:
WHERE THE BOMB IS?
WHAT TIME IS THE BOMB SET TO EXPLODE?
WHAT TYPE OF BOMB IS IT?
WHAT TYPE OF CONTAINER IS THE BOMB IN?
WHY WAS THE BOMB PLACED?, and
WHO THE BOMBER OR CALLER IS?
3. Have a co-worker, or another person contact the OU HSC Police (14911) using another telephone, and as covertly as possible.
4. Write information down as the caller says it, and have the co-worker, or other person relay this information to the OU HSC Police.
5. Try to the keep the caller on the phone. Listen for any background noises; voice inflection; accent, and anything that would help to determine the origin of the call
6. Evacuate the building upon instructions from properly identified emergency response personnel, or as deemed appropriate in individual situations.
7. All evacuees should report to an outside predesignated area for accountability. LETTER AND PACKAGE BOMB INDICATORS

*DO NOT OPEN THE PACKAGE OR LETTER
*Isolate the package or letter, and evacuate the immediate area. Call the OU HSC Police Department IMMEDIATELY. @ 1+4911
*DO NOT put the package or letter in water or confined space such as a desk drawer or filing cabinet.
*If possible, open windows in the immediate area to assist in venting potential explosive gasses.
*If you have any reason to believe a letter, or parcel, is suspicious, do not take the chance, or worry about possible embarrassment, if the item turns out to be innocent. Instead, contact the OU HSC Police Department.

UH, Army to scour for bombs in ocean

The Army will again partner with the University of Hawaii this August on a $2.3 million underwater survey to try to pinpoint the location of nearly 600 tons of chemical weapons believed to have been dumped five miles south of Pearl Harbor in 1944.
Eric De Carlo, UH oceanography professor, said the more extensive part of the underwater survey will involve the use of the Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory submersibles Pisces IV and Pisces V in November.
The Army says it believes that 16,000 M47A2 bombs containing nearly 600 tons of mustard agent were dumped in the area around Oct. 1, 1944. Each chemical bomb weighs 100 pounds and is nearly 32 inches long. The depth in the areas is estimated at between 1,000 and 1,500 feet.

Tad Davis, deputy assistant secretary of the Army for the environment, safety and occupational health, told reporters yesterday that the Pearl Harbor site is one of three known chemical weapons dumpsites that were found during what he described as "the largest research project" ever undertaken by the Army. The Army pored over a more than a million documents housed at the National Archives in Maryland and Washington, D.C., dealing with the way chemicals were disposed between 1919 and 1972, when the practice of ocean dumping was banned.
Besides the site the Army and the University of Hawaii scientists will examine this summer, the Army believes there are two other dumping areas in Hawaii waters.
The largest amount of chemical weapons is believed to have been dumped in an area 10 miles west of the Waianae Coast, where nearly 2,000 tons of lewisite, mustard, hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride were discarded.
Lewisite and mustard are blister agents, which produce irritation and damage to the skin and mucous membranes, pain and injury to the eyes and, when inhaled, damage to the respiratory tract. Hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride are blood agents, which, when inhaled, interfere with the tissue oxygenation process, especially in the brain.
An additional 29 tons of mustard were disposed of 10 miles south of Pearl Harbor.
Chemical weapons were routinely dumped into the ocean from the end of World War II until outlawed by Congress in 1972, Davis added.
Except for the lewisite, the chemicals were contained in bombs, projectiles and mortar shells. The lewisite was housed in large containers. Some of the chemical bombs were 1,000-pounders containing hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride.
De Carlo said the methodology will be similar to a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration project last year that surveyed the area known as Ordnance Reef off Pokai Bay. That survey took two weeks and combed a 5-square-mile area using sophisticated sea floor mapping and imaging equipment. NOAA concluded in March that there was little contamination from the conventional munitions found there.

Chemical bond energy example

In the chemical bonds of a molecule the attractive electrical forces cause bound states to exist. That is, the atoms of the molecule cannot escape the molecule without a supply of external energy. Bound states imply a negative potential energy compared to the free atoms, so any chemical bond has associated with it a negative potential energy. The principle of conservation of energy can be used as an overall analysis tool for looking at chemical reactions involving changes in bonds.
Consider the combination of two molecules of H2 with one molecule of O2 to form two molecules of water, H2O. Energetically, the process can be considered to require the energy to dissociate the H2 and O2, but then the bonding of the H2O returns the system to a bound state with negative potential. It is actually more negative than the bound states of the reactants, and the formation of the two water molecules actually releases 5.7 electron volts of energy .
The balance of energy before and after the reaction can be illustrated schematically with the state in which all atoms are free taken as the reference for energy.

If the dissociation energies of the H2 and O2 and the energy release upon their reaction were measured, that would offer an experimental path to determining the total bond energy of the H2O molecule.
An energy balance approach can also be useful in the analysis of an ionic bond.

Available experimental parameters for sodium, chlorine and the NaCl molecule provide data for calculation of the dissociation energy of the molecule from conservation of energy. The steps toward forming the NaCl ionic molecule could be seen as (1) providing the ionization energy of 5.14 eV to ionize Na, then (2) the recovery of -3.62 eV from the electron affinity of Cl, then the binding energy of the electric attractive forces based on the known bond length of 0.236 nm. But this process does not match the measured dissociation energy of NaCl, 4.26 eV. This reveals the presence of another repulsive energy term called Pauli repulsion (+0.32 eV).

U.S., South Korea Sign Free-Trade Pact

Chemical makers say agreement will boost U.S. exports to fast-growing Asian market

The chemical industry is welcoming a free-trade agreement between the U.S. and South Korea, but the measure faces opposition in Congress from Democrats who fear it could cost auto industry jobs.
The agreement is the largest bilateral trade deal the U.S. has negotiated since the 1993 North American Free Trade Agreement. It would eliminate tariffs on 95% of consumer and industrial products between the two countries within three years.

South Korea is among the world's top 10 chemical-producing countries. Already the sixth-largest market for U.S. chemical exports, which totaled $4.3 billion in 2006, the country is among the fastest growing markets for them in Asia.
"We are eager to see chemical tariffs in Korea eliminated as quickly as possible," says American Chemistry Council President Jack N. Gerard. "We are pleased that this agreement includes strong protections for investments and intellectual property, as well as important commitments by Korea on regulatory transparency and technical barriers to trade."
Officials signed the accord on June 30, just hours before President George W. Bush's authority to negotiate "fast track" trade agreements expired. That authority allowed the White House to broker free-trade deals that Congress must either approve or reject, but cannot change.
"This is the most commercially significant trade agreement for the U.S. in nearly 15 years," says Commerce Secretary Carlos M Gutierrez
Key Democrats, however, contend the measure does not go far enough in dismantling South Korea's nontariff barriers, especially in the automotive industry. Last year, they note, South Korea exported more than 700,000 cars to America, while the U.S. shipped fewer than 5,000 cars there.
"Unfortunately, the agreement as currently negotiated is a missed opportunity," House Speaker Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) and other House Democratic leaders say in a joint statement. "We cannot support it as currently negotiated."
U.S. Trade Representative Susan C. Schwab says the pact "will stand on its own, without amendment," and she believes lawmakers "will come to understand the details and learn just how compelling a deal it is."

Chemical Secretions of the leaf-cutter ant Acromyrex octospinosus

In a study featured in the Journal of Chemical Ecology the complex and intricate secretions of the leaf cutter ant, specifically the ant Acromyrex octospinosus, were studied and identified. The metaplural gland found only in ants has been the subject of much debate in regards to its purpose in the ant's biology. The gland was first believed to give off secretions of pheromones to mark territory and identify nest mates. In recent years this theory was replaced with a new one that the metaplural gland was actually involved in antibody defense against microorganisms. In the Ortis-Lechner and others study featured in the Journal of Chemical Ecology, it was these metaplural gland secretions that they were studying.

In the Ortis-Lechner and others study twenty-one major chemical compounds were identified! These twenty-one chemical compounds were identified through gas chromatography, and by testing 138 specimens from three different ant castes (major, media and minor) to get their results.

So what does all this mean?

From the results of the Ortis-Lecher and others, study of the metaplural gland and its secretions a couple of possible conclusions are reached. Firstly due to the wide range of discovered acids the metaplural gland secretion can be used to lower the pH in the fungus garden. This theory is supported by the knowledge that the fungus in garden grows at a pH of five and that if the ants are taken away from their gardens in a matter of days the pH has risen to that of seven or eight (journal of chemical ecology 26: 1679). However the acids in the metaplural gland could also have antibiotical uses for the ants or their surroundings. Needless to say the chemical interactions between the leaf cutter ant and its food source fungus are massive, whether it is the ant adjusting the pH for the fungus to have optimal growth conditions or it is the fungus giving enzymes to the ants to allow the ants to digest usually non-digestible parts of plants.

Reactive Chemicals

To safely handle and use chemicals (or products that incorporate chemicals), users must understand the hazards associated with these materials. In particular, certain chemicals can spontaneously decompose or explode, especially at elevated temperature or pressure. Other chemicals may react violently when mixed with incompatible materials. These reactions may result in death and injury to people, damage to physical property, and severe effects to the environment. All chemical reactions involve energy changes. The activation energy is the energy necessary to start the reaction, and the heat of reaction is the energy released (or absorbed) during the reaction. An exothermic chemical reaction releases energy, while an endothermic reaction absorbs energy. If a chemical reaction releases energy, either very rapidly or in very large quantities, and the process cannot absorb the excess energy, it has the potential to damage the containment structure or surroundings. Accordingly, mitigation strategies for reactive hazards are typically focused on controlling the rate and extent of energy release. Because most reactions speed up at higher temperature and pressure, a typical strategy to prevent a chemical runaway reaction requires active cooling or venting. While classic thermodynamics allows a top-level view of whether a specific reaction can or cannot occur under given conditions of temperature or pressure, the rate at which the reaction will actually occur has to be determined by incorporating experimental or numerical tools from a chemical kinetics repertoire. By balancing the rate of energy release against the rate that the energy is absorbed (or otherwise used up), it is possible to predict whether a specific chemical combination will cause a runaway chemical reaction.

Exponent engineers and scientists have significant experience in evaluating reactive chemical hazards for a wide variety of industrial, commercial, and residential applications. For more than 40 years, we have investigated thousands of incidents, ranging from large explosions or detonations caused by a runaway chemical reaction, to small fires caused by the self heating of oil-soaked rags stored in a manner that allowed trapped heat to accumulate. Results of our research and investigations are frequently published or presented in peer-reviewed journals and technical symposia, including the Loss Prevention Symposium sponsored by the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) and the Mary Kay O’Conner Process Safety Center at the Texas A&M University. Exponent also conducts audits of chemical and industrial processes, and offers design review and chemical analysis of consumer products and equipment to determine compliance with applicable United Nations (UN), U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), and other federal and state regulations. We also assist our clients in developing appropriate risk management, mitigation, and hazard communication strategies.

REWARD for 100% chemical free material

This is a pretty interesting idea, taking the word chemical "back" as something good... or at least not "poisonous"... I agree!

The Royal Society of Chemistry is today reclaiming the word chemical from the advertising and marketing industries.
It has been misappropriated and maligned as synonymous with "poison". The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) recently defended an advert which perpetuated the myth that natural compounds are free of chemicals.
The truth, as any right-minded person will say, is that everything we eat, drink, drive, play with and live in is made of chemicals - both natural and synthetic chemicals are essential for life as we know it.
If, as the ASA says, the public believes materials can be "100% chemical free", the RSC will soon be inundated with examples from people wishing to claim the £1 million pound bounty announced today by the RSC.
Dr Neville Reed, a director of the RSC, said today: "I'd be happy to give a million pounds to the first member of the public who could place in my hands any material I consider 100% chemical free.
"Should anyone do this, we will see thousands of years' worth of knowledge evaporate before our eyes. We would have to tear up the textbooks, burn the degree certificates and retrain the teachers."
The manufacturers of a popular "organic" fertiliser recently drew the attention of the public when it claimed in promotional materials the product contained no chemicals whatsoever.
The product's manufacturer makes the fantastic claim to be "100% chemical free" in its advertising and on its packaging. The back of the packaging lists its chemical-free ingredients, which include phosphorus pentoxide and potassium oxide.

Dry Chemical Powder Fire Extinguisher

DRY CHEMICAL POWDER FIRE EXTINGUISHER IS : 13849 - 1993 (stored pressure)
Available in both ABC and BC ClassCapacity :1kg, 2kg, 5 Kg & 10 KgExtinguishing Media :Dry Powder Mono Ammonium phosphate & Dry NitrogenEffective discharge (%) :Min 90%Jet Length (Mts.) :1kg, 2kg, & 5kg Not Less then 4 Mtrs, 10kg Not Less then 6 MtrsDischarge Time (Sec.) :30 SecOperation method :UprightType of fire :ABC classTest :Hydraulic Test Pressure 30 Kgf / cm2 for 2.5 MinutesApproval :ISI marked

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Study: 100 chem plants could be terror targets

Lethal chemicals stored near most populous U. S. areas, report finds

In a March 2004 file photo, Miami-Dade Fire Rescue hazardous material technicians walk to a decontamination area after sealing a leaking chlorine cylinder at a company in Miami. Chemical plants in several states are located in population centers of at least 1 million people, according to a congressional report to be released Wednesday.

WASHINGTON - Experts call it one of the worst-case scenarios in a terrorist attack: a cloud of lung-melting gas or a toxic fireball ripping though a U.S. city. Potential casualties: 1 million or more.
At least 100 chemical plants nationwide could be targeted to produce such devastation, according to congressional researchers in a report that was to be released Wednesday.
The tally of plants possessing large amounts of 140 toxic and flammable chemicals was compiled by the Congressional Research Service using Environmental Protection Agency data from May, the most recent available. It represents one of the first public state-by-state breakdowns of how close potentially deadly facilities are located to the nation’s largest population centers.

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Chemical Energy

Q: My science group is doing a science project and we need ideas on chemical energy demonstrations. We also need ideas on potential and kinetic energy. Please email me A.S.A.P. Thank you!

-trent
brier wa usa
A: Trent -

Chemical energy is the energy that’s stored in the bonds and atoms that make up molecules. If different chemicals are allowed to react, these bonds can rearrange themselves. Sometimes they need extra energy to do this, so they soak up some from their surroundings. These reactions are called ’endothermic’. But sometimes they’ll release some extra energy into the environment, heating it up. These are called ’exothermic’ reactions.

Probably the most common dramatic example of an exothermic reaction is when something burns. When something like wood burns, it is actually a chemical reaction between the molecules in the wood and the oxygen in the air. When these things react, a lot of chemical energy gets changed into heat energy and light energy, which is why you get a hot, bright flame.

Another common example involving chemical energy is a battery. Chemicals in different chambers of the battery are allowed to interact, reducing chemical energy and producing electrical energy. (Same thing happens for lemon batteries and potato batteries.) Similarly, the instant heat packs that you can find in first-aid kits use a chemical reaction that converts chemical energy into heat energy.

Any reaction that is exothermic if it starts wih an excess of material on one side of the reaction formula and proceeds from those reactants to the products on the other side will be endothermic if it proceeds the opposite way. That will happen if at the start the exces is on the other side of the reaction formula.

Although most dramatic reactions are exothermic, not all are. Wikipedia lists the following dramatic endothermic reaction: "The mixing of barium hydroxide and ammonium thiocyanate causes a powerful endothermic reaction that causes the products to become so cold that the moisture from the air forms a layer of frost on the outer surface of the beaker."

An exothermic example that you may be able to try at home involves cement. If you get some dry powdered cement and mix it with water, you will probably notice that it also gets quite warm. This is because of a reaction between the water and the lime in the cement, which release some of their chemical energy as heat energy. Like I said, there’s a lot of examples out there... This is just a few to get you started. Good luck with your project!

-Tamara (w. small changes by Mike W.)

(republished on 07/25/06)

Follow-Up #1

Q: give axamples of potential energy to chemical energy??

-Anonymous
Houston, Texas, U.S
A: sure. A simple example of potential energy is the gravitational energy of some water at a height above the Earth. As it flows downhill, it can drive a hydroelectric generator. The electricity can be used to charge batteries. The energy stored in a battery is a form of chemical energy.

By the way, I should clarify that a lot of these categories overlap. If you look in detail at the chemical bonds, chemical energy is a combination of kinetic and potential terms.

Mike W.


An example of kinetic energy is a baseball being thrown by Nolan Ryan at 100 mph.
Lee H

Chemical Energy

Propane, C3H8, natural gas, CH4, and phosphorous, P4 react with oxygen O2, and these reactions release energy in the form of heat and light. No doubt, according to the principle of conservation of energy, energy is required to reverse the reactions. Thus, energy stored in chemicals (compounds) and energy released or absorbed in chemical reactions are called chemical energy, which also covers topics such as bond energy, ionization potential, electron affinity, electronegativity, lattice energy, etc.

For example, at standard conditions, the combustion of 1.0 mole hydrogen with oxygen releases 285.8 kJ of energy. We represent the reaction.
H2(g) + 1/2 O2 -> H2O (l), dH = -285.8 kJ/mol
where dH represent the heat (or enthalpy) of reaction, and a negative value means that the heat is released. Usually, dH is represented by DH in textbooks, but using dH notation is much less work on Internet documents.

For the reverse reaction, 285.8 kJ/mol is required, and the sign for dH value changes.
H2O (l) -> H2(g) + 1/2 O2, dH = +285.8 kJ/mol

A Chemical Energy Level Diagram


------------H2(g) + 1/2O2
­ |
| |
286 kJ | | -286 kJ
| |
| ¯
------------ H2O

We can also use an energy level diagram to show the relative content of energy. The energy content of H2(g) + 0.5 O2 is 285.8 kJ higher than a mole of water, H2O.

Oil, gas, and food are often called energy by the news media, but more precisely they are sources of (chemical) energy -- energy stored in chemicals with a potential to be released in a chemical reaction. The released energy performs work or causes physical and chemical changes.

It is obvious that the amount of energy released in a chemical reaction is related to the amount of reactants. For example, when the amount is doubled, so is the amount of energy released.
2 H2(g) + O2 -> 2 H2O (l), dH = -571.6 kJ/mol
Example 1 shows the calculation when the amount of reactants is only a fraction of a mole.

Example 1
How much energy is release when a balloon containing 0.15 mole of hydrogen is ignited in the air?

Solution
The amount released is 0.15 mol * 285.8 kJ/mol = 42.9 kJ

Discussion
The sudden release of energy causes an explosion.
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

A reaction that releases energy is called exothermic reaction. Energy is released in the form of heat, light and (pressure-volume) work. For example, when methane or propane is oxidized by O2, the heat released causes the gas to expand (explosion in some cases); releasing heat & light and doing work at the same time. In this case, the energy source came from chemical reactions instead of at the expense of internal energy described in the previous module.

Endothermic reactions absorb energy, and in all cases, the energy is supplied from another source, in the form of electrical energy, heat or light.
Pressure-volume Work in Chemical Reactions

Many chemical reactions involve gases, and when a gas is formed, it displaces other gases by pushing them out against a pressure. Work, defined in Newtonian physics as a force times the distance along the force direction, is performed in such an action. The work is called the pressure-volume (P-V) work, which is a form of energy and it must be analyzed and its quantity included in chemical energy calculations.

The SI units for pressure are N m-2 and that of the volume is m3. Pressure times volume gives the unit of N m, which is the definition of joule,
1 Pa * 1 m3 = 1 N m-2 m
= 1 N m
= 1 J
Since 1 atm = 101300 Pa, and 1 L = 0.001 m3. Thus,
1 atm L = 101.3 J.
The P-V work under constant pressure (P) is simply the pressure times the change in volume dV.
w = - P dV
This method applies to reactions that produce gases, which are released into the atmosphere. When work is done by the system, the work is negative, as the formula indicates. In reactions where gases are consumed to produce liquid or solid, work is done on the system by its environment. The work is positive.

In cases the pressure varies, an integral approach is required to evaluate the pressure volume work.
w = - Ó d (P V)
= - Ó P dV - (the integral of) V dP
The negative sign is retained, because the work done by the system is negative. However, the integral of P V work depends on the path, and we will not get into the detail discussion at this stage.

Example 2
In the reaction to produce oxygen,
KClO3(s) = KCl(s) + 3/2 O2(g),
calculate the pressure-volume work done by 8.2 g of KClO3.

Solution
The molar mass of KClO3 is 123.5 g/mol and 8.2 g is 0.067 mol. Thus, the amount of oxygen produced is 0.10 (= 0.067*2/3) mol. Apply the ideal gas law to the pressure volume work (P V), w have
P V = n R T

w = - D P V
= - D n R T
= - 0.10 mol*8.312 (J / (mol K))*298 K
= - 248 J

Discussion
The work done is due to the formation of gas O2 which expands against the atmosphere of 1.0 atm or 101.3 kPa. The volume changes of the solids are insignificant compared to that of the gas.
In case both pressure and volume change, and the work is the difference of the pressure-volume product, DP V.
Enthalpy
The enthalpy, usually represented by H is the energy released in a chemical reaction under constant pressure, H = qP. The enthalpy is a convenient property to evaluate for reactions taking place at constant pressure. Enthalpy differ from internal energy, E, defined in Energy as the energy input to a system at constant volume. The energy released in a chemical reaction raises the internal energy, E, and does work under constant pressure at the expense of energy stored in compounds. Thus,
H = qP = E + P dV
Of course, the enthalpy change (dH) of a chemical reaction depends on the amount of reactants, the temperature, and pressure. Under normal conditions, the ideal gas law can be applied to give reasonable results.

Like the internal energy, enthalpy is also a thermodynamic state function, depending only on the initial and final states of the system, but not on the rate of reaction.
Standard Enthalpy of Reaction
In order to make the data useful for scientific and engineering applications, there is a general agreement to report and tabulate enthalpy changes for a mole of reaction at a standard temperature and pressure. Such quantities are called the standard enthalpy of reaction.

In handbooks and textbooks, the standard enthalpy change is represented by Ho. For simplicity, we use dHo to represent the changes of standard enthalpy in our discussion to avoid (very) slow loading of the delta onto your computer.

Example 3
The standard enthalpy for the combustion of methane is 890.4 kJ per mole,
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) -> CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g), dHo = -890.4 kJ/mol
calculate the standard enthalpy change when 1.0 cubic meter of natural gas is burned converting to gaseous products.

Solution
When 1.0 mol or 22.4 L of CH4, at 273K and 1 atm, is oxidized completely, the standard enthalpy change is 890.4 kJ. One cubic meter is 1000 L (/22.4 = 44.6 mol). Thus, the standard enthalpy of change is,
dH = 44.6 mol * 890.4 kJ/mol = 39712 kJ or 39 million joules.
A problem can be made up using any of the following standard enthalpy of reactions. These are given here to illustrate the type of reactions and the representation of enthalpy of reactions.
2 H(g) -> H2(g) dHo = -436 kJ/mol
2 O(g) -> O2(g) dHo = -498 kJ/mol
H2O(l) -> H2O(g) dHo = 44 kJ/mol at 298 K
H2O(l) -> H2O(g) dH = 41 kJ/mol at 373 K, non-standard condition
Mg(s) + S(s) -> MgS(s) dHo = -598 kJ/mol
2 H(g) + O(g) -> H2O(g) dHo = -847 kJ/mol
Cu(s) + 1/2O2(g) -> CuO(s) dHo = -157 kJ/mol
1/2N2(g) + O2(g) -> NO2(g) dHo = 34 kJ/mol
Mg(s) + 1/2O2(g) -> MgO(s) dHo = -602 kJ/mol
2 P(s) + 3 Cl2(g) -> 2 PCl3(s) dHo = -640 kJ/mol
2 P(s) + 5 Cl2(g) -> 2 PCl5(s) dHo = -880 kJ/mol
C(graphite) + 2 O(g) -> CO2(g) dHo = -643 kJ/mol
C(graphite) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) dHo = -394 kJ/mol
C(graphite) + 2 H2(g) -> CH4(g) dHo = -75 kJ/mol
2 Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) -> Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s) dHo = -850 kJ/mol
As we shall see, the application of Hess Law will make these data very useful. For example, applying Hess law using a few of these reactions enable us to calculate the heat of combustion of methane to form liquid water (as opposed to gaseous water) and carbon dioxide,
CH4 + 2 O2 -> 2 H2O(l) + CO2(g) dH = -980 kJ/mol.

Enthalpy is an important topic in thermodynamics. Various methods have been devised for the accurate measurement of heat of reaction under constant pressure or under constant volume. This link gives a more advanced treatment on enthalpy.
Standard Enthalpy of Formation, dHf

When the standard enthalpy is for a reaction that forms a compound from its basic elements also at the standard state, the standard enthalpy of reaction is called the standard enthalpy of formation, represented by dHof. Unless specified, the temperature is 298 K.

Table of dHof
Compound dHof
MgS -598 kJ/mol
CuO -157
PCl3 -320
PCl5 -440
H2O -286
NO2 + 34
MgO -602
CO2 -394
CH4 -75
In the above list, some of the equations lead to the formation of a compound from its elements at their standard state. These equations and their enthalpy of formation are given below:
Mg(s) + S(s) -> MgS(s) dHof = -598 kJ/mol
P(s) + 3/2 Cl2(g) -> PCl3(g) dHof = -320 kJ/mol
P(s) + 5/2 Cl2(g) -> PCl5(g) dHof = - 440 kJ/mol
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) -> H2O(g) dHof = -286 kJ/mol
1/2N2(g) + O2(g) -> NO2(g) dHof = + 34 kJ/mol
Cu(s) + 1/2 O2(g) -> CuO(s) dHof = -157 kJ/mol
Mg(s) + 1/2 O2(g) -> MgO(s) dHof = -602 kJ/mol
C(graphite) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) dHof = -394 kJ/mol
C(graphite) + 4 H2(g) -> CH4(g) dHof = -75 kJ/mol

In all the above equations of reaction, the right hand side has only one product and that its coefficient is 1. A general rule is to consider standard enthalpy of formation of all elements at the standard condition to be zero. Then, there is no need to write the complete equation for the tabulation of the standard enthalpy of formation. The above list can be simplified to give the table shown here.

A simple application of the standard enthalpy of formation is illustrated by Example 4.

Example 4
For NH3, dHf = -46.1 kJ/mol. Estimate energy released when 10 g of N2 react with excess of H2 to form ammonia.

Solution
Ten grams of nitrogen is less than 1 mol, and we carry out the calculation in the following manner:

1 mol N2 - 46.1 kJ
10 g N2 ---------- ---------- = - 32.9 kJ
28.1 g N2 0.5 mol N2

Thus, 32.9 kJ is released when 10 g of N2 is consumed.

Standard enthalpies of formation and standard entropies are important thermodynamic data, and this link gives an extensive table of values for some key compounds.

The principle of conservation of energy leads to the formulation of the Hess law. It's application makes the enthalpy of reaction and standard enthalpy of formation very useful.
Confidence Building Questions

*
Which one of the following will you buy it for its (potential) chemical energy: gasoline, beer, diamond, dry ice, a music CD, or a chemistry text book?

Skill:
Identify compounds that provide energy.
A bottle of beer also provides a bit of energy, but the energy aspect is insignificant.

*
Which of the following processes is endothermic?
a. condensing steam into water
b. burning a candle
c. melting ice cream
d. cooling hot coffee
e. formation of snow flakes

Skill:
Identify process as endothermic or exothermic reaction.

*
Which one of the following compounds when formed from its elements at the standard condition is endothermic?
a. CuO
b. PCl3
c. PCl5
d. H2O
e. NO2

Discussion:
The common sense tells us that the formation of a though d are exothermic. Check the standard enthalpy of formation. A lot of energy is required to break the triple bond in 0.5 N2 + O2 -> NO2

*
A 10.0-L tire contained air at 3.0 atm exploded on a free way. How much energy is available for the explosion?

Skill:
To evaluate pressure-volume work of a system. The final volume should be 30.0 L at 1.0 atm, a net gain of 20.0 L in volume.

*
Calculate the pressure volume work for the reaction:
ZnO(s) = Zn(s) + 0.5 O2

Skill:
Apply the ideal gas law to evaluate the P V work.

*
In a chemical reaction, an unknown amount of propane is burned. It released 500000 kJ for the BBQ, and performed 9999 kJ of pressure work. Which one can you calculate from the information given above?
a. internal energy change
b. standard enthalpy change
c. molar enthalpy change of CO2
d. enthalpy of formation of propane
e. enthalpy of reaction

Skill:
Define enthalpy of reaction as the energy release in a reaction and the work done by the system.

*
The enthalpy of formation is as indicated:
H2(g) + 0.5 O2 -> H2O(l), dHf = -285.8 kJ/mol
Calculate the enthalpy of reaction when 1 mole of O2 reacts with 4 moles of H2 at the standard conditions.

Skill:
Calculate the energy change using standard enthalpy of reaction and standard enthalpy of formation.

*
The enthalpy of formation is as indicated:
H2(g) + 0.5 O2 -> H2O(l), dHf = -285.8 kJ/mol
Calculate the enthalpy required to decompose 1 mole of water by electrolysis, all products and reactant at their standard conditions.

Skill:
Calculate the energy change using standard enthalpy of formation.

*
From the following data
P(s) + 3/2 Cl2(g) -> PCl3(g) dHof = -320 kJ/mol
P(s) + 5/2 Cl2(g) -> PCl5(g) dHof = - 440 kJ/mol
Evaluate the standard enthalpy of the reaction:
PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) -> PCl5(g) dHof = ? kJ/mol

Skill:
Apply the principle of conservation of energy. Solving this problem is a prelude to Hess law.

*
A problem to be defined.

Skill:

cchieh@sciborg.uwaterloo.ca

Chemical Energy

The energy held in the covalent bonds between atoms in a molecule is called chemical energy. Every bond has a certain amount of energy. To break the bond requires energy -- in chemical language it is called endothermic. These broken bonds then join together to create new molecules, and in the process release heat -- chemists call this exothermic. If the total heat given out is more than the heat taken in then the whole reaction is called exothermic, and the chemicals get hot. The burning of methane in oxygen is an example of this. If the heat taken in is more than the heat given out then the whole reaction is endothermic and the chemicals get cold. Combining carbon and hydrogen to make methane is an example. We rarely meet such reactions in every day life. They happen in living cells, the energy being supplied by sunlight or some other source.

ATP is the molecule used by life to carry chemical energy. The bond between two of its phosphate groups carries a lot of energy because both phosphates have negative electric charge.